نشریه پژوهش های دستوری و بلاغی
پیاپی 7 (بهار و تابستان 1394)

Pragmatics is regarded one of the three branches of rhetoric science, which has long focused on how to speak on the basis of audience and speaker's present requirements and situation. The discussion about meaning relates pragmatics to such sciences as semantics. However, the discussion about connotative meaning (implication) of sentences on the basis of present requirements differentiates these two sciences. Although pragmatics is mainly based on present requirements, there are issues in traditional books on pragmatics, which are not related to connotative meaning (implication) of discourse; rather, they are completely grouped into semantics and grammar. Rhetoricians have regarded conjunction and disjunction among the most important issues in pragmatics. The present paper seeks to investigate the issue from the view of connotative meaning (implication) in pragmatics and grammar. In this relation, the theory of "textuality and cohesion" is taken into consideration. The research findings indicate that the issue of conjunction and disjunction are in themselves specific to grammar in which they are discussed in detail under the title of (literal and figurative) subordination and conjunction. In fact, the reference to this issue in pragmatics which is related to literal and linguistic meaning of discourse has no connotative meaning. In other words, transposition of these two conjunctions does not cause implications or connotative meanings.

Mirza Mohammad Ali Khan(1849- 1906; 1228-1285 solar), pen named Soroush, is one of the famous poets of literary return period, who imitated well-known ode writers of the Ghasnavid era in his odes to such extent that he has been entitled the Farrokhi of 19th (13th solar) century. This is truly evidenced in the appearance of such terms as padashan (retribution of grace and favor to someone), farishteh (angel), Ahoo (defect), ich (no, nothing); courtly terms such as 'eqhta' (land grant, feudal), parrah (a group of cavalry and infantry for kingly hunt, etc.) Dabboos (mace), Toqhra (a kind of decorative Persian handwriting or script); old terms and verbs such as Yalah kardan (make free), gosil kardan (dispatch), zhazh (thistle, nonsense), sahi (erect, straight), khastan (injure), alfanjidan (gather, accumulate), khooshidan (to dry); double preposition, conditional ya (the last Persian alphabet), the verbal prefix of hami (showing continuation and repetition); ancient Iranian myths (Jamshid, Kay kavus and Kay Khusraw), brides of poems (Wamiqh and 'Ozra, Vis and Ramin, Layla and Majnun, and Rad and Robab, etc.) in his poems. Soroush did not merely imitate Khorasani style, which is indicated in the new terms and expressions in his odes such as kargah vasl (lit. workstation of connection which refers to telegraph), Abvar (a person or thing related to or oriented towards water), haqhvar (a person or thing related to or oriented towards right and truth), manbarestan (a place containing a lot of rostrum), Lalehestan (tulip garden), Madhgar (praiser), khaheshgar (requesting), lobatkadeh (toyshop), sooratkadeh (photographer studio) and a lot of Arabic words as well as his lack of mastery on Persian syntactic and grammatical rules, disharmony in the syntax of the sentences, using a lot of scientific terms, Quranic verses and hadiths. The present paper seeks to criticize and analyze his odes from the view of linguistic stylistics and determine his position in the style of literary return period.

Sketch poetry is the brevity of our time and regarded as a subset of eclogue. Despite its brevity, however, it has the capacity of including all concerns of contemporary man. Now if a powerful mind and an efficient style shows the most meanings and reaches “brevity” in rhetoricians words in this concise poetry through minimal selection of words and their clever arrangements, it will create a marvel called “brevity in brevity” which the authors of the present paper believe is the climax of verbal art in contemporary man's modern poetry; and attaining such a technique will be of even more increasing importance, considering the special form of sketch poetry. The present paper seeks to demonstrate the function of brevity in sketch language, reviews all successful written samples related to the subject matter through a library research to attain this goal, and provides a scientific and applied explanation of different kinds of brevity in sketch poetry. The findings show the extraordinary importance of brevity in eclogue – generallyand sketch poetry-particularly. Sketch poetry, with its short and specific form and structure, provides the poet with little opportunity; therefore, if a contemporary poet wishes to show all aspects of contemporary man's life to serious addressees of poetry in a clear way and desired structure of sketch poetry, then only choosing a concise language, a thunderous and influential expression, and using the art of brevity in its best possible form will ensure his/her success.

There are innumerable messages in literature, which alter the grammatical and syntactic rules of language. Breaching or ignoring such rules will convey a new message to audience. The literary language usually transcends every syntactic rule on purpose. Accordingly, one may consider the literature as the evasion of the authority of a language and a constant revolution occurring in it. Similarly, the poetry may be defined as the transition from one single meaning to countless other meanings. Through deviation, we realize how successful the poet has been in creating a fresh feeling, giving more coherence to poem, its better systemizing, improving its musical dimension and making its influence deeper by using such methods and techniques. Grammatical ultra-normativity, deviation, syntactic deviation, amphibology, deviation from norms, foregrounding, etc. are expressions which have entered into the literary circles and critic texts during the last decades. The present paper takes a glance at various kinds of deviation in 23 poems of Nima Yushij, an Iranian stylist poet. Using a descriptive-analytical method, it tries to demonstrate the functions of this phenomenon and examine the poet’s creativity level in linguistic creations through defining such terms and providing several concrete examples and instances in his poems.

Semantic deviation is a technique used properly and skillfully by poets and novelists to promote the level of their literary works. Bizhan Najdi is a novelist who greatly tends to use this technique in developing his novels. Since semantic deviation is more specific to poetry, using it in prose works make them appear like poem. The present paper hypothesizes that one of the most important factors which puts the language of Najdi's novels out of the usual logic of discourse and drives them towards poetic language is the appearance of different kinds of semantic deviation in them. In order to prove the hypothesis, different kinds of semantic deviations in his novels have inductively been determined and the most frequent and influential ones - in terms of poeticizing the language of Najdi's novels- have been studied. The research findings indicate that, among the literary techniques included within semantic deviation, simile, personification, trope, synesthesia, exaggeration and paradox are most influential in poeticizing the language of Najdi's novels

Nasir Khusraw's poems can be studied from different angles and the present paper seeks to study the phenomenon of symbol in his poems. First, the symbols used in his Diwan are studied in terms of their origin and then their human or transcendental feature is determined. The symbols used in this Diwan are human symbols and their origins are nature (trees), creatures like birds and animals, historical and religious personalities, legend and mythical creatures and constellations. Nasir Khusraw has used symbolic language to state political and religious concepts and foregrounding, in addition to esotericism, has an important role in using symbolic language in his poems.

The review and analysis of Persian literary works in terms of their language and gender is a relatively new issue which needs extensive research. The first theories on the issue were proposed by Robin Lakoff in his famous article "language and woman's place" which made a great development in sociolinguistic studies. For the first time, he proclaimed that men's language is different from that of women. His theories mostly suggested that manly tone dominates the language. In Iran, women's entrance into social and cultural atmospheres is of little record. Regarding the fact that women were not regarded the audience and readers of literary works, that men mostly wrote for men and manly language was regarded the best one in the past, we should wait to see whether women can create a language proper to the gender of their protagonists at the time when they have found an opportunity to enter into the field of writing novels and have written great novels so far. Zoya Pirzad is a contemporary female novelist who has attained a proper position among other novelists and received the rewards of PEKA (Institute for distribution of Iran's books) and Hooshang Golshiri Foundation for her novel as the best novel of the year and the reward of the book of the year from Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance etc. for writing some novels, particularly the novel "I will turn off the light". Due to the position of this female novelist and her famous novel among contemporary novelists, the present paper seeks to review the aforementioned novel and study the dialogs of its protagonists in terms of language and gender in order to evaluate her success in this regard. The results show that she has been successful in many cases and has gone beyond linguistic norms in terms of dealing with issues specific to genders. However, she has failed in some cases, particularly in dealing with colors.

Art and literature are two ways of creation, which are interrelated from an aesthetic point of view. Art sometimes alters its aesthetic form, which can be done through reconstruction of language, understanding and perception. From a point of view, literature can be called art when a literary work has the unique features of an artistic work, that is, a work has been created and is not repeatable, because literature and art express an artist's feelings and affections which cannot easily be restated and repeated. Artistic creation is a kind of inspiration which is not understood by reason and logic. It can be said that beauty is the same in different arts; and painting, music and poetry are closely related because they originate from man's soul and are not so much related to material. The present paper investigates the interrelationship and mutual influence of literature and art.

The present paper analyzes one of novels in Nizami's Seven Beauties, entitled "the Black Dome", based on mythological or archetypal criticism. First the novel is reviewed in terms of its story structure and plot, based on Freytag's Pyramid. Like other classic and pre-modern novels, the narrative structure of the novel follows a linear plot consisting of rising, climax and falling or end. Then a different reading is proposed on the basis of such mythological archetypes as the category of travel, water, number, black color, mysteries, and man's descent which are rooted in men's collective unconsciousness and used as a means of narration in this symbolic novel. The review and interpretation of the archetypes which are unconsciously used in the context and narration of the novel is another pleasure of it; for example, the archetype of travel which is one of the most important mythological themes in the world of myths, fictions and novels and the whole story is formed on the basis of this category.

The present paper investigates the semantic dimensions of black color and its positive and negative functions in the poems of 'Antarah Ibn Shaddad, a pre-Islamic virtuous poet. It shows that the positive dimension of black color sometimes appears in a simile like likening it to musk and ambergris, sometimes as blackness of lover's hair or eyes and sometimes in the dark and tense atmosphere of battlefield.in all these portrayals, however, the poet tries to alleviate his hurtful soul, though passing. In negative dimension, the black color often appears as a defect which is used as a pretext by 'Antarah's relatives and friends to excommunicate him. However, using logical methods such as suggesting that blackness is blameworthy when describing bad acts or that whiteness of act cleanses bodily blackness, the poet appears as a social reformist who tries to reform wrong and meaningless beliefs of the society and replace color and gender-based discrimination with the rule of moral values. A descriptive-analytical method is used to elaborate on two contradictory dimensions of black color in this poet's Diwan (complete poetic works).